Midlife Career Transition and Identity

Chapter 2 Literature Review

Improved healthcare and increases in life expectancy have led to people working later in life. One outcome of longer work lives is increased numbers of workers who have experienced career transitions. Statistics on length of work years and frequency of job changes over a worker’s lifespan paint a picture of the occurrences of job change, however, these do not illuminate the nuances of career change effects on the individual. Mullins (2009) described career change as a (usually) life-altering event, which according to Mezirow (2000), may be precipitated by a disorienting dilemma. While career changes may produce anxiety and uncertainty (Tieger et al., 2014), it has also been posited that a process of transformative learning occurs during transition from one career to another (Mezirow, 2000). This literature review begins with a summary of the factors involved in midlife career transition, followed by a review of theories of identity formation in order to provide theoretical grounding for the researcher’s questions pertaining to midlife career transition and its relationship to identity variables. Next, it explores the concept of accepting imperfection and vulnerability to become more authentic. A summary of transformative learning theory, existentialism and self-transcendence describes alternate outcomes of life transition. The review concludes with an exploration of the benefits of art therapy for individuals in midlife, with particular focus to visual journaling as an art therapy method that holds promise for individuals experiencing career transition.
Employment in the United States
The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) tracks trends in the labor force. Numbers of workers age 55 years and older have been increasing, with the labor force participation rate for workers 65 years and older projected to show the fastest increase of all age segments (Toossi &
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Torpey, 2017). Rice (2015) stated that 10,000 workers will turn 65 years old every day up until 2029. According to the Employee Benefit Research Institute (2014), of those workers turning 65 years old, 74% plan to work past 65 years of age, and half of those plan to change careers. Thus, planning for career transition in later life has become very important. The Society for Human Resources Management (SHRM) found that individuals in midlife accounted for 60% of those seeking to change careers (as cited in Grossman, 2014). Of note, study findings indicated the decision by workers to change careers was motivated by the desire to do something about which they were passionate. Freedman (2007) pointed to social consciousness as a motivating reason for many workers who change careers in the second half of life. He reasoned that baby boomers who desired to make a better world during the 1960s may have returned to their ideal after having spent decades pursuing financial rewards, thus pursuing goals of social betterment in their encore careers.
Challenges of An Aging Workforce
In 2017, The U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) reported that about 40 % of people 55 years of age and older were working. Toossi and Torpey (2017) identified two reasons that people have been working later in life: people are healthier with longer life expectancies than in past generations and are better educated. Contrariwise, older workers face the reality of increased health issues. Older workers also may face the challenge of stereotypes regarding their inability to keep up with productivity, or with technological developments and obsolescence of their knowledge (Van Dalen, Henkens, & Schippers, 2010). Comparing age bias to other types of bias, Calo (2005) cautioned against ageism in the workplace. Grossman (2014) argued that such concerns about older workers, particularly in comparison with younger workers, are unfounded myths. Moreover, he noted that intergenerational workforces have been shown to be
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an advantage to organizations, though they continue to face more difficulties in the hiring process when compared to their younger counterparts. Rice’s (2015) study of what she termed recareering, or career change, found that participants who changed careers later in life did not experience indicators of ageism.
Nevertheless, older workers who desire to change careers need to be self-aware. Individuals who change careers due to dissatisfaction should embark on a thorough exploration of any underlying elements that may have contributed to the desire to change careers. Tieger, Barron, and Tieger (2014) asserted that almost any occupation can be a good fit for almost any personality. Further, Tieger et al. emphasized the importance of a worker gaining understanding about their identity, direction, and purpose. Exploration of an individual’s strengths, including focus on one or two specific strengths, may help an individual to move through career transition feeling successful (Handley, 2014). Understanding personality strengths and weaknesses may also lead to more satisfying career choices (Tieger et al., 2014).
Midlife Career Change
Job change can be frequent among workers. According to data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), people change jobs about every 5 years (Toossi & Torpey, 2017). In 2016, 4% of the workforce changed from one type of occupation to another (Torpey, 2017). Changing careers, however, is different than simply leaving one job for another, as it involves leaving an established occupation for another occupation. Studies of the frequency of career change are lacking. Ibarra and Barbulescu (2010) and Mullins (2009) described the desire to do more meaningful work as among the reasons people may change careers. Brown (2015) succinctly described a facet of midlife as the deep longing to live the life you want to live, which prompts many individuals to a career transition. Other factors that may motivate an individual towards a
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career change include the pursuit of long-deferred dreams or to explore new interests, as well as other factors beyond one’s control, such as a lay-off, a job loss, the loss of a partner, or a change of life season, (Mullins, 2009). Potential deterrents to a midlife career transition may include lack of formal education or on-the-job training requirements for the desired position, as well as the possibility of a pay decrease in cases where one must start at entry level in the new career (Haasler & Barabasch, 2015; Brown, 2016).
Theories of Identity Formation
Various theories of identity have been formulated. Among them, Freud, Jung, Allport, Erikson, and Rogers each postulated differing beliefs about identity formation, as well as diverged on hypotheses regarding personality development. Personality has been described as an influence on identity development (Tieger et al., 2014).
Identity development. Freud believed identity development was completed by the end of adolescence; other personality theorists had differing theories (Hergehhahn & Olson, 1999). Jung (1954) claimed that the midlife stage may be characterized as a second adolescence in identify formation. He described this second period of individuation as an inward journey of discovery of self (Jung, 1954).
Growth of personality. Allport (1961), an early personality theorist, referred to personal disposition as the pattern of traits a person possesses. Allport’s theory of personality emphasized the uniqueness of the individual, and the belief that healthy adults were future oriented (Hergenhahn & Olson, 1999). He further described the organizing agent of the personality as the proprium. Hergenhahn and Olson (1999) noted that this agent in ancient times was described as the soul, and later, as the self, mind, or ego. Allport (1961) believed full propriate functioning was present only in the final stage of adult development, describing the mature conscience, an
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ought conscience, as necessary for an individual to attain long-term goals (Hergenhahn & Olson, 1999). Allport (1961) believed healthy, mature adults were guided by a major intention, or something special for which to live.
McCrae and Costa (1987) proposed a five-factor model, also known as the Big Five (Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness and Emotional Stability), to describe traits of personality. Whereas Allport believed that one’s personality did not become fully developed until later in life, Schwaba and Bleidorn’s (2018) investigation of the Big Five traits across the adult life span found relative stability of the personality traits through midlife.
The concept of Personality Type was developed primarily by Jung and the work of Briggs and Briggs Myers (Tieger et al., 2014). Myers (1998) described the theory of the growth of personality throughout the lifespan. Myers and Kirby (1994) further described dominant, auxiliary, third, and fourth functions of each personality type. Tieger et al.’s (2014) experiences working with individuals revealed growth of undeveloped (fourth functions of personality) in midlife. The authors delineated midlife as a time when individuals may look over their remaining years and reevaluate their values, thereby leading to a change in priorities. Consistent with this view, midlife as a transitional period offers a time of growth in self-awareness and self-realization (Erikson, 1980).
Psychosocial theory. Erikson (1980) emphasized the effect of social and cultural influences on human development. Erikson’s (1980) psychosocial theory of development posited that there are eight stages of development that occur throughout the lifespan, each characterized by a psychosocial crisis that an individual must resolve in order to adjust and move forward to the next stage. For individuals in midlife (40-65 years of age), he identified the psychosocial crisis as that of stagnation versus generativity. In Erikson’s (1980) conception,
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individuals who choose to be generative express concern for future generations and seek to find meaning in the latter half of life. In Chen, Krahn, Galambos, and Johnson’s (2019) study of 369 midlife workers intrinsically rewarding work was positively associated with feelings of generativity. Thus, self-knowledge and self-understanding are key to navigating generativity versus stagnation. A paradoxical outcome of self-understanding, Slater (2003) described generativity as becoming less self-focused and becoming more other-focused. Cox, Wilt, Olson, and McAdams (2010) found that individuals who experienced generativity also experienced more positive societal engagement. Influenced by Erikson, Gilligan (1982) described women’s development as based on relationship and caring, thus concurring that psychosocial development continues through midlife into later life as well. Further, Gilligan proposed that women’s development was “characterized by a morality of care” (Jordan, 2010, p.13), which stood in contrast to male development models that emphasized abstract principles of justice and rights.
Humanistic theory. Maslow has been credited with the development of humanistic psychology, which includes the tenets of free will and human beneficence. Maslow (1987) theorized that healthy, mature individuals are those who become their authentic selves. Maslow (1962) proposed that humans are motivated by a hierarchy of needs, which begins with basic physiological needs, such as food, water, and shelter, and culminates in self-actualization needs, including seeking self-fulfillment and personal growth needs.
Person-centered. Rogers promoted the premise of unconditional acceptance in therapy as an outgrowth of his belief in the uniqueness of each individual and the need for acceptance in order to achieve self-actualization (Palmer & Carr, 1991). Rogers (1961) described self-actualization as the process of enriching one’s experiences with new elements to challenge and
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reach new potentials. Further, Rogers believed that human behavior arises out of an innate striving to enhance one’s life.
Existential. Existentialist theory emphasizes the anxiety and despair that individuals may experience as they become aware of the human condition, including the reality of death and nothingness (Winston, 2015). According to existentialism, basic sources of anxiety arise from awareness of isolation, loneliness, despair, and inevitable death. Existentialists believe that experiences of anxiety may lead an individual to constructive growth as they seek meaning for life (Yalom, 1980). Therapists who operate from an existentialist theoretical lens seek to assist clients in finding meaning in life even as they face anxiety. From an existential framework, the finite nature of physical life serves as a prime motivator for midlife transitions. As individuals confront the reality that time is limited, acceptance of finality may lead individuals in midlife to re-prioritize, take responsibility, and make more personally authentic choices (Becker, 2006). Relational-Cultural Theory. Relational-cultural theory (RCT) posits that human beings are born seeking connection, and are thus, interdependent (Jordan, 2010). The development of RCT is attributed to the work of psychodynamic and feminist theorists (Gilligan, 1982; Jordan, 2010; Jordan, Kaplan, Miller, Stiver, & Surrey, 1991; Miller, 1976), who emphasized the importance of healing through human relationships and connections. RCT theorists contradicted commonly held beliefs in human striving for independence or autonomy by declaring that human beings, at core, desire to move towards authenticity, shared empathy, and mutual empowerment through relational connections (Jordan, 2010). Other important tenets of RCT include the opposition of power imbalances and oppression by dominant cultures (Jordan, 2000), as well as the belief that a culture of disconnection has led to physical and social distress, with increases in isolation and violence and decreases in community involvement (Putnam, 2000). RCT
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practitioners promote a mission of social action: healing in connection leads to healing others in connection (Jordan, 2010).
Wabi-sabi and Vulnerability
In further contrast to theories of personality as growth toward self-actualization, Wabi-sabi is a Japanese aesthetic of finding beauty in accepting imperfection in nature, as well as acceptance of the natural cycle of life, growth, and death. It leads to the encouragement to accept one’s imperfections, limitations, and impermanence (Buetow & Wallis, 2017). While personal losses may lead to feelings of brokenness, a transformative viewpoint is believed to lead to authenticity. Kintsugi, or the 16th century Japanese tradition of repairing broken pottery vessels and highlighting the repairs with veins of gold lacquer, focused on mending brokenness by highlighting what was broken, thus honoring authenticity (Buetow & Wallis, 2017).
Brown’s (2012) work in the areas of human connection, courage, vulnerability, shame and empathy has illuminated the links between connection and vulnerability. Brown (2010) described wholehearted individuals (those who are resilient to the shame that interferes with connections) as those who are vulnerable. In Brown’s view, human vulnerability is expressed in the courage to be imperfect, compassion for self and others, and the desire to be connected to others through authenticity. Additionally, Brown (2010) also described self-acceptance of one’s vulnerability as the birthplace of joy, creativity and feelings of belonging. Empirical investigations of the construct of vulnerability found that hope and resilience served as a mediator of psychological vulnerability (Satici, 2016), as well as concluded that it was a necessary component in nurses’ work with patients to avoid dehumanizing patients (Daniel, 1998).
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Transformative Learning Theory and Existentialism
Mezirow (2000), known as the developer of transformative learning theory, believed that individuals search for purpose, often through meaningful work, in a process he referred to as transformative learning. Mezirow’s conceptualization of transformation depends on one’s ability to critically reflect on rational and non-rational beliefs about him or herself. Willis (2012) expanded on Mezirow’s concept of the disorienting dilemma (involuntary change of job, change of marital status, or phase of life change, etc.) from that of a cognitive framework to a focus on “the processes of human being and becoming” (p. 212). Willis further stated that individuals must come to a challenge of the schemas, or internal beliefs, they held. Transformative learning is not simply a change in cognitive perspective, but moving toward feelings of personal growth, and becoming more alive and complete.
Willis (2012) believed individuals encounter changes that contradict their life choices, which in turn, may lead them to a crossroads. When one seeks to transcend or go beyond circumstances, rather than exist in the difficult circumstances, such a dilemma may lead to transformative learning experiences. In contrast, Cooper and Mackenzie (2011) suggested that occupational embeddedness, or the idea that one is unable to move out of a present career, may serve as an obstacle to career change for some individuals.
Self-transcendence. Self-transcendence has been conceptualized as the “capacity to reach out beyond oneself and discover or make meaning of experience through broadened perspectives and behaviors” (Wiggs, 2010, p. 220). Self-transcendence, which is associated with continued developmental growth, has been theorized to correspond with emotional well-being, including during times of life crisis (Wiggs, 2010). Wiggs believed that times of crisis may be instrumental in leading individuals on a path towards transformation, self-renewal, and making
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positive life changes. Based on a review of prior research, Verhaeghen (2017) concluded that practicing mindfulness and self-transcendence has been found to decrease stress, depression, and anxiety, while also improving psychological well-being. Grushka’s (2005) study found that art making combined with self-reflective practices led to experiences of self-transcendence in a sample of seven participants.
Art Therapy
Art therapy is a mental health and human services profession that offers individuals, families and communities life enrichment through art-making within a psychotherapeutic relationship (AATA, 2017). Art therapy is believed to benefit individuals in a variety of ways, including for purposes of self-expression, identity development, and self-advocacy, as well as for catharsis, soothing, and enhanced insight (Carr, 2014; Fenton, 2008; Wadeson, 2010). Accessing creativity through various media and art therapy methods has also been described as a pleasurable way of reconnecting with the soul and connecting to Creation itself that can lead to health and maturation, especially when done in community with others (Hyatt, 2007).
Art therapy in midlife. Cruickshank (2009) posited that creativity may serve generative needs, and as such, is a way of shaping ongoing development. Further, Cruickshank advocated for positivity in age as stimulation for new growth. de Guzman et al. (2011) described the benefit of art therapy in maintaining ego integrity in populations even beyond midlife. Art therapy allows expression of wisdom and hope of later years. Messman (2004) believed that, through art therapy, individuals may gain creative energy that they can use to explore their legacy. Moreover, Scope, Uttley, and Sutton’s (2017) metareview of 12 studies found that relationship building, both with the art therapist and group members, was listed as among the most important benefits of art therapy. This finding serves to support the idea that art therapy
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can be an important means of working with individuals in midlife career transition, as a drive for healthy connections has been surmised as an underlying motivation for midlife career (Gysbers et al., 2014).
Visual Journaling
Visual journaling has been described as a platform for expression of thoughts and feelings through use of imagery (Chilton & Leavy, 2014). Visual journaling has also been described as a collection of representations of an individual’s thoughts and feelings, wherein understanding is gained beyond the written word through use of imagery that may lead to the emergence of new questions (Scott-Shields, 2016). From this perspective, the focus of visual journaling is not to solely to answer questions, but to use the question(s) to launch an inquiry for new understandings. In this way, images may allow expression of answers to questions or concerns of the creator.
Visual journaling may be used as a vehicle for reflection on identity transformation (Dyment & O’Connell, 2011; O'Connell & Dyment, 2011; Van Horn & Freed, 2008), as well as to foster both self-acceptance and self-discovery through symbolism (Jacobson-Levy & Foy-Tornay, 2010). Ganim and Fox (1999) proposed that imagery created in visual journaling may express the inner voice of the soul. In their study, they found that participants who used visual journaling to externalize emotions and stressors experienced increased feelings of calmness. They also reported that participants discovered inner messages to themselves that they perceived to guide career decisions. Visual journaling was also found to reduce stress in both medical students (Mercer, Warson, & Zhao, 2010) and graduate student interns (Deaver & McAuliffe, 2009). Moreover, making art and reflecting upon the image with written text was believed to lead to insights into participants’ experiences (Deaver & McAuliffe, 2009; Sinner, 2011). Thus,
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visual journaling may similarly be useful in reducing the expected stress of career transition through the process of visually narrating and reframing one’s experiences.
In summary, literature pertaining to employment in the United States was first reviewed, with specific attention to midlife workers and their experiences. Following this, brief summaries of theories of identity formation, transformative learning theory and existentialism, and self-transcendence were explored in order to provide theoretical grounding in areas of identity and transformation deemed relevant to the researcher’s questions. Finally, literature describing the use of art therapy, art therapy in midlife, and visual journaling was synthesized to explore the available research and writings on these topics for application with the study population.