A View from the Classroom

          When I began teaching in 2001, instructional media in a typical classroom included an overhead transparency projector. Today in my district all teachers have an image camera and projector, which allow them to project anything they place under the lens. Many teachers take full advantage of these devices. For example, one teacher used them during a science experiment where students were asked to design a closed circuit that lights a bulb. Groups of students designed a circuit and demonstrated their methods while projecting the procedure for the entire class to observe and compare to their own circuits. Another teacher uses the camera primarily to project images of worksheets and other papers. These examples highlight the same instructional technology being used for different purposes.
 
          In his 2001 articles, Robert Reiser made the distinction between instructional technology and instructional media. What many people refer to as instructional technology, such as computers, projectors, or videos, he labeled instructional media (Reiser, 2001a). He defined instructional media as the means by which instruction is conveyed to the learner. As he pointed out, the media could include a teacher, a book, or a chalkboard. In the example of the first teacher who used the camera for science, the use of the medium impacted teaching and learning. In the second example, the instructional technology made no impact, because the new medium, a camera, was used in the same way as the previous medium, a transparency projector. The camera was used to convey information in the same manner that the transparency projector, which was collecting dust in the corner, would have been used.
 
          In the example of the science demonstration, the instructional medium had an impact because of the way it was used. This impact was also dependent upon the way the teacher designed the instruction. Reiser suggested that throughout the history of instructional design and instructional media, the changes in the media have, for the most part, developed independently from the changes in instructional design (Reiser, 2001b). The examples of the teachers using the camera indicate that they do not necessarily go together; use of an updated medium did not necessarily signal a change in the delivery of instruction.
 
          This paper examines how some of the common instructional media have been used during the past fifty years and their relationship to the implementation of learning theories. While books have been referred to as “one of the oldest technologies of all,” this paper will focus on newer instructional media that began to develop in the second half of the 21st century (McGinnis, 2006 p. 38). This time frame was selected because several scholars have suggested that the launching of Sputnik in 1957 was a pivotal event because it raised awareness of the need for educational reform in the United States in order to keep up with the Soviets’ technical achievements (Molnar, 1997).
 
          The theory of behaviorism states that learning takes place when humans or animals respond to an external stimulus. When the behavior is reinforced, there is a better likelihood of getting the repeated response to the same stimulus. The behaviors are measurable and observable. In the 1970’s in the United States behaviorism dominated educational technology even though behaviorism no longer dominated psychology (Saettler, 1998). Developers of computer-assisted instruction hoped to create self-paced individualized instruction for students. Based on behaviorism, this technology drilled the students and reinforced correct responses (Molnar, 1997). This new technology dominated in the 1970’s and more sophisticated versions are still used in schools today. Learning programs such as the Rosetta Stone language acquisition program and the Lexia phonics program reinforce correct answers and adjust the skill level based on the students’ responses. Students receive immediate feedback and reinforcement for correct responses.
 
          While behaviorism is concerned with observable responses, cognitivism focuses on the organization of knowledge by the learner. The learner participates actively in learning. The student draws on pre-existing knowledge to connect it to new knowledge. The acquisition of knowledge depends upon how the learner “selects, encodes, organizes, stores, retrieves, decodes, and generates information. . .” (Blanton, 1998, p. 171). Blanton stated that motivation is an important aspect of cognitivism. Even though there was a great interest in the application of cognitivism to instructional design in the 1980’s, by 1995 the computer still had little impact on instruction. Teachers mainly used them for drills, teaching computer skills, or word processing (Reiser, 2001a). This report confirmed what I observed during my first year of teaching in 2001. Many classrooms had one computer. Some classrooms had the computer cabled to project onto a television monitor. A few teachers used it for instruction using programs such as PowerPoint. The computer lab was commonly used for word processing, skills practice, and assessments. Today teachers frequently use digital technologies to motivate student learning through engaging presentations, activating prior knowledge, modeling strategies, or helping students organize knowledge.
 
          Richard Venezky suggested that the main problem with the behaviorist use of computers such as computer-assisted instruction is that the student is isolated in learning and does not interact in a social context (Venezky, 2004). Programs such as Rosetta Stone and Lexia can help teach and reinforce skills. Even though these programs require more than rote memorization, they involve an isolated student building skills at his or her own pace. They play a limited role in my school and are used by students who specifically need extra practice to build vocabulary and phonics skills. As Venezky pointed out, their “potential for transforming K-12 (i.e. compulsory) education is near zero” (Venezky, 2004, p. 4). Venezky believed that the isolated learning that takes place when students work individually on computer drills does not take into account the need for social interaction during learning. In my school, this type of drill does not typically take place in the regular classroom, the place where the potential exists for the implementation of innovative technologies guided by the teacher. Social learning involves the interaction of humans and is tied to constructivism.
 
          In constructivism, the learners create their own knowledge. Constructivist learning draws from prior knowledge, is social, and involves authentic tasks. Sutherland et al. described a common knowledge community that can be created in the classroom with the help of information and communication technology (Sutherland et al., 2004). They described a project where the teacher incorporated digital photography and PowerPoint to exhibit work of the class, thus emphasizing collective knowledge. Other ways of sharing knowledge include creating Web sites, blogs, podcasts, or digital videos.
 
          Even though a great interest existed in constructivism in the 1990’s (Reiser, 2001b), for many classrooms, this technology is just beginning to get a foothold. The Web has the potential to transform K-12 education, because it can open up the classroom to the outside world (Venezky, 2004). Although many elementary teachers have brought information into the classroom through the Web, far fewer have used the Web to interact with the outside world. Blogs or publishing on the Web would motivate students and enable them to share their work. The class creating a Web page about a subject they are studying would certainly provide authenticity to the task.
 
          Another means to guide students in creating knowledge is a well designed Web Quest. As Haydn Davis pointed out in his recent podcast, students spend far too much time surfing the net. Rather than looking for information, Web Quests support them in “thinking at the levels of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation” (Davis, September 16, 2006). When using Web Quests, students are allowed to create their own understanding of a subject. Teachers can create their own Web Quests to assist students with specific subjects they are studying in the classroom. Web Quests are easy to find on the Web; however links frequently do not work. By making their own Web Quests, teachers can ensure the students have a high-quality experience and use their time productively.
 
          Constructionism is another learning theory, which was developed by Seymore Papert at MIT. Constructionism is an extension of constructivism. The added dimension is that in constructionism the learner builds or creates something that others can see (Tangdhanakanond, Pitiyanuwat, & Archwamety, 2006). For example, a student navigating a well made Web Quest could be engaged in constructivist learning. On the other hand, a student creating a Web site, which requires the synthesis of information, would be constructionist, because he or she creates something that could be seen, evaluated, and used by others. Other tools that could be implemented in constructionist learning include concept mapping software, digital video, digital photography, PowerPoint, and other multi-media software.
 
          In conclusion, as new instructional designs based on various learning theories have developed, technology has helped implement these theories in new ways. The past shows there has often been a lag between available technologies and their utilization in implementing current learning theories. To various degrees, schools have found new ways to implement instructional design. Some classrooms are on the cutting edge, using new technology to change the delivery of instruction, which has impacted student learning. Other classrooms utilize few of the technologies available to them. For these classrooms there has been little or no impact of technology on instructional design. Now that many schools have new instructional media readily available, the next step to achieve the advancement of the use of technology in the schools is through teacher training.
 
          My school is an example of one that has the many technical resources. Every teacher has a wireless laptop, projector, camera, and at least one desktop computer. We have two mobile labs with class sets of iBooks in addition to our computer lab. In order to take full advantage of these resources, our teachers need further training. This could be done in a number of ways including training on professional development days, offering district trainings with professional growth credit, or allowing teachers release time to go into other classrooms or schools to observe teachers modeling the effective use of instructional technology. Schools could also hire technology mentors who would be available at the site to help teachers with questions, concerns, or training. Teachers could also consider making one of their goals for the year to integrate more technology into their instruction. The tools are in place, and it is up to the teachers to take the next step.
 

References

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Davis, H. (September 16, 2006). "Teaching with technology: Web Quests" (podcast). Retrieved September 23, 2006, from http://www.palomar.edu/atrc/FeaturesIndexes/TipsIndex.htm
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Venezky, R. L. (2004). Technology in the classroom: Steps toward a new vision. Education, Communication & Information, 4(1), 3-21.