Educational Technology and Society

The Development of Educational Technology and the Effects of Technology in Society
Anne M. Hodgskiss
Northern Arizona University
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for ETC 567
Dr. Sujo de Montes
June 24, 2007

Abstract

          Technology has advanced in the last 100 years. From glass slides and the opaque projector to our current technology of television, overhead projectors, and computers, technology has been integrated in classrooms more widely. Computers can be used for both behaviorism-based software as well as constructivism-based software and assignments, as well as encouraging collaborative relationships. Recently, the internet has been used by teens for social networking. This has positive effects, such as collaboration, but it also has negative effects, such as stalking. Our technological tools are not being used as they could. With adequate training, teachers could implement technology in their classrooms more effectively, and even use social networking to their advantage.



          Technology’s role in education has changed in education over the years. There are social, historical, and educational foundations for its use in education. In this paper I will first focus on the development of technology in education, and I will then address how technology is being used in schools today. In the second part of this paper, I will address how social networking websites have affected society and education.

Foundations of Technology in Education

          Technology has advanced dramatically in the last 100 years. Technology was first introduced to education in the mid-1800s when some people perceived a need for visual aids in order to deepen learning experiences and move from rote memorization to understanding. In 1906, Keystone View Company published a teachers’ guide to slides and stereographs entitled Visual Education. By the 1920’s, visual aid departments started appearing in schools. In 1927 the motion picture with synchronized sound was born. Educators started considering the idea of using motion pictures in the classroom for instructional purposes. Two years later ERPI Classroom Films, Inc was created. They started to produce their own educational films, and by 1935 they boasted a collection of forty titles for sale and use in the classroom. At the same time, some schools were developing film libraries with audio-visual directors. By 1940 ERPI Classroom Films, Inc, was sold to the University of Chicago and Encyclopedia Britannica and was then renamed Encyclopedia Britannica Films, Inc. (McGinnis, 2006, p. 35).
          World War II brought about a technological revolution. The instructional film industry boomed as films were used rapidly to train young men and women. Many of those involved in this film production became leaders in the educational audio-visual movement from the 1950’s – 1980’s (McGinnis, 2006, p. 36). The war also created a demand for expert technology personnel. British universities created programs to train more students in technology and science. Many people were worried about universities not teaching humanities to science and technology majors, and thereby depriving them of what they considered to be essential education (Silver, 2002, pp. 558-568). In the 1950’s some schools began to use television broadcasting (McGinnis, 2006, p. 37). Encyclopedia Britannica Films, Inc. were still creating films, and actually had a whole course in physics on 16mm film with sound. Films like this were useful for schools that could not find an educator to teach needed course work (Wiseman, 2006, p. 15). This broadcast technique was also used for distance education for those who were too far away from a campus or had extenuating circumstances (Bernard et al., 2004, p. 580). B.F. Skinner created teaching machines around this same time. These teaching machines could be used independently by a student. The student was given a problem and used a stick or a pencil to select an option and receives instant feedback. This was based on Skinner’s behaviorist learning theory of operant conditioning in which a subject receives a reward of sorts for a correct response. In 1965 a study was done in Roanoke, Virginia using these teaching machines. An eighth-grade class completed the entire ninth-grade algebra curriculum in half a year using teaching machines. The students tested as well as the ninth-grade students, and retained their knowledge over the course of a year better than the traditionally taught students (Skinner, 1984, p. 947).
          Microcomputers brought about another wave of change. In the 1980’s the Apple II went on the market. This was one of the first commercial microcomputers, making it possible for more people to use computers (McGinnis, 2006, p. 38). In 1984, Skinner was confused as to why more schools were not using computers as teaching machines, especially given the successful study in Roanoke, Virginia in 1965 (Skinner, 1984, pp. 947-948). Around the same time, a man by the name of Arthur S. Melmed wrote an article about the lack of productivity in education and educational research. He saw computers as a productivity-enhancing tool in education, as they had been in other areas of industry. He noted that computers hold “powerful promise” for improving student learning. Unfortunately, at that time, educational software was still in limited supply (Melmed, 1982, pp. 4-5). Educational software was, of course, created. Much of the software was behaviorism-inspired, allowing students to practice basic skills. Some of it was based on the constructivist theory, such as a piece of software called Logo where one gave geometric commands to a turtle on the screen that drew with its tail. Software like this allowed students to explore the world of geometry and construct their own knowledge.

Technology’s Current Educational Uses

Today, most of the classrooms around the world, save some of those in developing countries, have heavily integrated technology. We take for granted the overhead projector, television, tape/CD player, and computer. Many of us desire even more technology, or newer technology, in our classrooms. No longer does distance education take place via the postal service. Distance education now takes place through the internet where students have access to multimedia, information online,  discussion boards, and campus portals, much like WebCT’s Blackboard software. Many activities are within a constructivist and social learning framework as students research and collaborate with others (Bernard et al., 2004, pp. 580-581).
In 1998 a study was done in several countries where the schools became Information and Computer Technology (ICT) schools. Many school systems wanted to move from rote memorization to higher-level thinking skills, and decided to try using computers as the catalyst for change. They found that ICT use in schools led to more collaborative work among students as well as the creation of a learning community between students and including the parents. Unfortunately, they also found that most educational websites are lacking features for creating learning communities (Venezky, 2004, pp. 5-18). This simply means that one must create learning communities on one’s own. Bulletin board software exists (phpBB being a free one that I have seen used in many places), and, for the tech-savvy, is relatively easy to set up.
          The positive effects of using technology in the classroom are abundant, or so the research shows. Technology allows students access to information online, and can encourage teachers to assign research projects, knowing the vast amount of resources available. Students can construct their own knowledge, even about historical events, through the use of online research. Required discussion on bulletin boards forces many students to think more in-depth about material than they would otherwise. It also forces the students to collaborate, which fosters a sense of community beyond the people who sit near you in class. Bulletin boards also allow shy people to participate in discussions (DenBeste, 2003, pp. 492-500).
Very few people speak of the negative effects of using technology in the classroom, but they do exist nonetheless. While PowerPoint presentations allow us to add visuals and other multimedia to our lessons with ease, it takes considerable time to create the presentations. Also, some teachers just use PowerPoint to outline their lecture, or read directly from their PowerPoint slides, thus making the lecture a waste of time, as well as a waste of technology use. Requiring students to use technology for projects can also pose a problem for many as access is not as abundant as we would like to think. Campus computer labs are often overcrowded, creating a problem for the time-strapped student. Time is also taken from lectures in order to orient students with the technology they are required to use(DenBeste, 2003, pp. 492-500). This aspect is a trade-off, assuming that the students’ learning gains will be greater if they use the required technology.

Social Networking Online and its Effects

          Many young people online now are involved in some type of social networking website. In 2006, 86% of teens online were said to use a social networking site, such as Friendster, MySpace, Xanga, or Facebook. These websites have been created to communicate with others online (Byrne, 2005). They appear to be so popular because they are an avenue for self-expression, connecting with others, and a way to get feedback about one’s self-expression (Moss-Coane, 2006). The most popular of these sites are MySpace and Facebook. There are differences between these sites, leading to many people having profiles on both websites. MySpace invites everyone to join, so long as you are at least 14-years-old. The personalization options for the MySpace profile page are almost endless, including adding videos, songs, personal art, photographs, backgrounds, and changing the text. Facebook required, until recently, that in order to get an account one had to have an educational institution e-mail address. The profile can not be personalized as much as MySpace allows – the text and background are set. You may fill in blanks on their form and display pictures (Moss-Coane, 2006). These social networking websites gain popularity primarily by word-of-mouth (Byrne, 2005).
          Social networking sites affect our students socially and academically. Both MySpace and Facebook have areas where one can write blog entries. This is a way to keep up with friends and what is happening in their lives. Students also use these websites to discuss what happens in class (Byrne, 2005). Of course, not nearly as much academic conversation goes on as social conversation, but it happens none the less. Very often, in order to keep up with friends in real life, students must keep up with what has been said in the virtual realms (Byrne, 2005). Students might suffer academically sometimes because instead of doing homework, they might be spending too much time on social networking sites, much like chatting on the telephone. Some children have even apparently lied to their parents, saying that they have homework that requires internet usage when they do not (Moss-Coane, 2006). Personally, I see that these websites allow older students to create a community. This allows for more comfort around people that the students might not talk to on a daily basis, thereby increasing productivity on school assignments. I also see the benefit of students spending time communicating in written form. We used to encourage students to have pen pals across the world, and these social networking sites make it easier to connect with others across the world.
          Social networking websites pose another threat – stalking. Websites prompt people to give out information which would help others identify them. This can cause a problem in that the anonymity of your online communications is compromised. There have been many crimes related to online relationships, and these only increased with the advent of MySpace (Byrne, 2005). MySpace offers no discretion as to who can find your profile. A stranger can look at your MySpace profile, and then at all of your friends’ profiles, and most of the time enough information can be gathered as to your whereabouts that you can be tracked (Byrne, 2005). Parents should have conversations with their children about what should be posted in their profiles in order to protect their identities (Moss-Coane, 2006).
          Jesse Hirsch, a visitor on CBC News Today, pointed out another negative aspect of social networking sites: cyber-bullying. These networks have made it easier for people to gather behind an issue, and therefore for negative behavior to compound. The creation of interest groups have encouraged in sheep-like behavior that has actually resulted in death threats on school personnel. On the positive side, interest groups have also been used to create awareness of valid issues and to encourage charity work (Wilson, 2007).
          In the second half of 2006, Facebook was rated the favorite website of teens online, with MySpace in second place for females, and sixth place for males (eMarketer Daily, 2006). Facebook has gained even more popularity recently as they relaxed their policy for new accounts – users need not attend an educational institution anymore. Facebook has an added security feature over MySpace in that the user can determine who is allowed to view their profile. Until these rights have been granted, the visiting user may only view the user’s profile picture and what educational institution they attend. This information is especially helpful when searching for a friend who has a common name. I have seen benefits of using social networking sites in that it keeps friends and family close with minimal effort even as they move around the globe. Personally, I have cousins and siblings in 3 different countries, and friends across the globe. Since Facebook opened its doors to all, I am able to keep up with my family members with whom I would not usually communicate. This allows a form of cultural exchange as well as social learning as we discuss what is happening around the globe.
          I have also seen both MySpace and Facebook inspire humorous videos to be posted on the internet. Facebook actually had a video competition at one point. These videos have been created by people who might not ordinarily create videos, but have been inspired by the urge to entertain their friends, and as such are exploring new ways of self-expression. This allows for these tools to be used easier to present information in an educational setting since the students have already explored the tools while completing a fun project.

Conclusion

          The technology that is used in education has advanced incredibly in the last century, with the main gains being made after World War II and since the production of the first microcomputer. Technology such as projectors using PowerPoint have replaced opaque projectors, and television is still used as a supplementary tool. Both the behaviorist and constructivist ways of learning are being used. Students are using computers for more constructivist activities than before, and an added effect is that students are working collaboratively.
Social networking sites allow students to collaborate on many issues. However, they also pose a threat as some students give out too much personal information, which can lead to stalking and abduction. Social networking sites have also become an extension to the social relationships that students have at school.
Not all technology is being used to its full potential. Technology in the classroom is underused, but that is often because teachers have not been adequately trained. Teachers need training to use their tools effectively. The social networking site idea could also be used in an educational setting along with bulletin boards in order for students to collaborate about projects. As society, we need to caution our children about putting too much information online for all to see. Too many tragedies have happened already as a result of too much personal information being posted online. This is no longer the individual’s responsibility, but society’s.
          There is a call for more education about the tools available to us as both teachers and to those in our society. Teachers need instruction on their technological tools and how to integrate them into lessons efficiently and effectively. Children need to be educated on the threats of posting too much personal information online. If we can execute this plan effectively, I see a very tall ceiling for safe and effective integration of technology both in education and society. 

References

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