Masculinity: Then and Now

Brie DeFlavio

12.5.2011

Concept Essay

Dr. Atkins



Masculinity: Then and Now





         Quintilian forever combined the virtues of manliness within the tenants of rhetoric by defining an orator as “a good man speaking well.” What does it mean to be a good man? Today, the concept of masculinity  strongly resembles the ideals that ancient Greco-Roman orators held. Gender identity is deeply rooted and is constantly reinforced through language and canons of oratory, especially delivery and style. Words cannot be disassociated from the people or society that uses them, or how users say them to persuade an audience. Early education on rhetoric combined instruction on how to become an influential orator as well as how to become a man. Manly virtue was the primus inter pares for the virtue of a successful orator and rhetorical education came to focus heavily on the canon of delivery. The mentality taught in ancient times has prevailed today, as seen particularly in the growing mainstream music culture; here, masculinity has been redefined in modern terms, but the fundamental definition remains unchanged. The definition of masculinity is defined in early works by ancient orators and continues to be exemplified by media institutions, particularly modern music which is reminiscent of ancient poetry and prose.



         “Marcus, my son, an orator is a good man who is experienced at speaking” (orator est, Marce, fili, vir bonus dicendi peritus). This simple statement from Quintilian had profound effects upon the school of rhetoric and it’s role in defining gender identities in centuries to come by placing value in a man’s appearance and physical attributes. Vir bonus means “good man,” and through rhetorical education, lessons on how to become and maintain a living example of this ideal became entwined with lessons on rhetoric and oration. Schools of rhetoric focused on five canons but in particular, style and delivery became large entities of their own and were most related to manly presence and command. The study of how an orator should give his speech focused on delivery, encompassing voice, gestures and dress, which was expected to be powerful and persuasive. According to Gleason (1995), Richlin (1997) and Gunderson (2000), rhetoric was an integral part of male socialization during the Roman Empire, with schools and performance halls providing significant opportunities for the construction, development and performance of manhood (Dow 7).  At the time, the requirements of an orator were to have an innate fortis of voice, meaning healthy, strong and brave. Instructors of rhetoric insisted that the voice be centered on virility and manliness. Outward appearance became important to the assertion of an orator’s manliness because it was a mentality the orator must embody all the time, not mimic the actions like an actor would of a character by stepping in and out of a role.



Health and self-discipline also fall into the realm of manliness, defined by opposite traits that defective people such as women or eunuchs possess. To be manly, one must be in shape and have a clean bill of health or he might be perceived as weak or sickly. Failure to conform to such expectations of a rugged man appeared feminine and was a critical blow to pubic figures authority during ancient times, much like present day. Manliness was a defense mechanism that proved a man’s worth to society. This instilled a strong fear of failing to use strong, powerful and commanding language in speakers, who strove to speak with fortis. Accordingly, Quintilian concludes that, “we should not soften our voice with delicacies nor let it become steeped in those habits it might desire” (Gunderson 8).  Instructors of rhetoric also enforced manliness with fear that, if the voice or appearance strays from the many ideal, that there would be a resulting corruption of the body that was specifically sexually threatening with the idea of physical or figurative castration. Frugality, or refusing sex, was endorsed so that a young man may seek more intellectual pleasures from his fellow men and, in return, derive satisfaction from properly gratifying them. This is coupled with discipline, not only during a speech, but in other aspects of an orator’s life as well. Because of these tenants, it was assumed that a man’s rhetorical style revealed not only his masculinity but also his character. These attitudes have held on to the threads of society through the rise and fall of empires, yet still remain deeply engrained in Western attitudes of gender identity.



Today, masculinity is also defined by an overall physical appearance, attitude and the acquisition of particular traits, many of which remain the same or are a cousin to the principles instilled by ancient rhetoricians. Media has been one of many institutions that reinforce masculine ideals and music, the child of the media, serves as a barometer of Western society’s value on masculinity. In certain genres, particularly hip hop and rap, men seem to possess hyper-manliness and the fear of appearing anything less than manly has intensified; perhaps due to the sexual revolution and rise of homosexuality since the eighteenth century, opposition to homosexuality is becoming increasingly important in the identity of a manly man. A 1936 inventory by Terman and Miles codified the constructs of masculinity and femininity as polar opposites and measured the masculinity of subjects in terms of the degree to which they were “powerful, strenuous, active, steady, strong, self-confident, with preference for machinery, athletics, working for self, and the external/public life” (Mosse 17). These traits are based in the teachings of Quintilian and other rhetoric instructors of the time and have influenced many institutions of society, not simply music.



While traits like power, strength, wisdom, justice, and courage are still main factors of masculinity after centuries of social unrest; modern factors must be taken into consideration to have a comprehensive idea of modern male identity in music. Artists’ lyrics alone promote a lifestyle that involves counter-authoritative symbols, like smoking marijuana or consuming other illegal drugs freely, as well as subjugating other groups like women or homosexuals. Lyrical content is backed up by the appearance or image the artists strive to create, usually by adorning themselves in baggy clothes and t-shirts like the youth wear as a symbolic rebellion against the ‘whiteness’ of traditional masculinity. These artists market their lifestyles in an attempt to prove their worth as a man – they tell their rags-to-riches story through their songs to build ethos then define themselves further with their attire and attitude. Male artists also put money on a pedestal, incorporating financial wealth as a huge factor of manliness while, in turn, insinuating that those who do not make an above average living are not ‘manly’ enough. As Lil Wayne raps in his song titled Stuntin’, he embodies the counter-authoritative, wealthily frivolous man that certain music genres prompt men to be, with lyrics like, “And you can tell that he smoke, but I don't need my vocal cords all I hit is C-Notes…Money is everything, and its every other thing.”  Often, masculinity is depicted to have a heightened sense of power and egocentrism, as if the world or an individual’s immediate surroundings are somehow influenced by, or put there for, that individual.



Manly ideals over time became shaped upon objectification of beauty. The stereotype of true manliness was so powerful precisely because, unlike abstract ideas or ideals, it could be seen, touched or talked to – a living reminder of human beauty, proper morals and a longed-for utopia (Roisman 34). Manliness has been an empowering force for men to be sexually promiscuous and has created a double standard that discriminates women from living a similar lifestyle. In this sense, masculinity is still defined by the dichotomous relationship between femininity and masculinity. Masculinity is the result of rejecting all feminine traits. To find out the validity of this claim, Imani Perry, a student and writer, traveled with a variety of hip hop artists to research the role of gender identity in the music industry. She found that masculinity has become defined racially and that there is a constant struggle between the traditional “whiteness” of manliness and the image of black masculinity.  “Self representations of black masculinity in the United States are historically constructed by and against dominant discourses of masculinity and race, specifically whiteness,” (Perry 19) and has been one of the only significant changes in masculine ideas since ancient Roman times.



Today, musical artists, especially rap and hip-hop, have an aura of hyper-masculinity that reflects the a gender identity crisis of men having to acknowledge that they are subordinate to another man, a fear that seems to have only intensified since ancient Greco-Roman rhetorical philosophies. The evolution of this male stereotype is being depicted in present-day public forums, particularly in the media, and will continue to be a major factor in the realm of rhetoric.







Works Cited



Dow, Bonnie. The SAGE handbook of gender and communication. London: Sage Publishing Co., 2006. Print.



Gunderson, Erik. Staging Masculinity: The Rhetoric of Performance in the Roman World. Michigan: University of Michigan Press, 2000. Print. <http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=6VzS8S9JJUUC&oi=fnd&pg=PA7&dq=staging masculinity&ots=JtoGsWkRnf&sig=yxNPE7XyER_06g0tTmwStojSFRw



Mosse, George L. The Image of Man: The Creation of Modern Masculinity. Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press, 1996. Print.



Perry, Imani. Prophets of the Hood: Politics and Poetics in Hip Hop. Durham: Duke University Press, 2004. Print. <http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=cQYf4gYrRxwC&oi=fnd&pg=PP11&dq=hip hop masculinity&ots=aBrkhu5mza&sig=XUEJsDrGTKcfCdAkTWczSy8NWhI



Roisman, Joseph. The Rhetoric of Manhood: Masculinity in the Attic Orators. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2005. Print.